Ali Ikhwan
Over a transformative five-year period, from 2013 to 2018, a distinctive China-style major-country diplomacy has coalesced, primarily shaped and championed through the extensive international engagements of Chinese President Xi Jinping. This era saw President Xi undertake an unprecedented 29 visits to 58 countries and major international and regional organizations across all five continents, a diplomatic blitz that earned him the unofficial moniker of "chief diplomat" of China. These meticulously orchestrated trips were instrumental in elevating China’s global standing, enhancing its leadership role across critical domains such as global peace, security, governance, and development. Simultaneously, they served to propagate a deeper worldwide understanding of China’s unique vision and approach to international relations, notably characterized by the principles of win-win cooperation and the ambitious endeavor of fostering a community with a shared future for mankind.
The Genesis of a Grand Strategy: Redefining International Relations
President Xi Jinping’s ascent to the presidency in March 2013 marked a pivotal moment for Chinese foreign policy, signaling a proactive departure from the nation’s previous "hide and bide" strategy. His first overseas journey as head of state, a visit to Moscow in March 2013, became the platform for the formal debut of this new diplomatic philosophy. Addressing an audience at the Moscow State Institute of International Relations, Xi eloquently articulated a vision for a world free from the anachronisms of past geopolitical rivalries. He stated, "To keep up with the times, we cannot have ourselves physically living in the 21st century, but with a mindset belonging to the past, stalled in the old days of colonialism, and constrained by zero-sum Cold War mentality." This powerful declaration laid the groundwork for his call to construct a new type of international relations, with win-win cooperation firmly at its core. This concept, deeply rooted in traditional Chinese philosophical thought emphasizing harmony and shared prosperity, became the bedrock of Beijing’s diplomatic outreach. It sought to replace confrontational paradigms with a collaborative framework, aiming to demonstrate that China’s rise was not a threat but an opportunity for global collective advancement.
A Global Footprint: Chronology of Engagement
The diplomatic offensive spearheaded by President Xi during these five years was both extensive and strategic, reflecting a carefully calibrated effort to build alliances, foster economic ties, and project China’s soft power. His itinerary was not merely a series of state visits but a deliberate construction of a global network of partnerships, each visit contributing to the overarching goals of peace, development, and shared prosperity.
Pillars of Bilateralism: Russia and Beyond
The relationship with Russia emerged as a cornerstone of China’s major-country diplomacy. Over the five-year period, President Xi engaged in six visits to Russia and held more than 20 meetings with Russian President Vladimir Putin on various international platforms. This intense personal diplomacy fostered an unprecedented level of trust and cooperation, elevating China-Russia ties to their historical zenith. This robust bilateral relationship, characterized by deepening economic, energy, and military cooperation, was frequently cited by both nations as a crucial anchor for global peace and security, particularly in a period marked by increasing geopolitical uncertainties. Vyacheslav Volodin, Chairman of the Russian State Duma, lauded this partnership, stating, "I believe that the model of bilateral relations that we have created should become one of the examples of civilized interaction between countries in the 21st century," underscoring its perceived exemplary nature for 21st-century state-to-state interactions.
Beyond Russia, President Xi’s diplomatic principles of non-conflict, non-confrontation, mutual respect, and win-win cooperation were applied to manage complex relations with other major powers. With the United States, this approach proved instrumental in navigating the inherent volatilities and uncertainties associated with a change in White House leadership, particularly during the early phase of the Trump administration. Xi’s exchanges with then-President Donald Trump led to the establishment of new high-level dialogue mechanisms between China and the United States, designed to promote global peace and security through structured engagement on strategic and economic issues. While significant differences persisted, these mechanisms aimed to maintain channels of communication and manage potential flashpoints, reflecting China’s commitment to stable relations with the world’s sole superpower.
China-Europe relations also expanded significantly under Xi’s direct engagement. Each of his tours to the continent aimed to forge a partnership with the European Union founded on principles of peace, growth, reform, and mutually beneficial bilateral cooperation. China actively sought to deepen economic ties, promote cultural exchanges, and collaborate on global challenges with European nations. Furthermore, China’s robust engagement with the countries of Central and Eastern Europe, often through frameworks like the "16+1" cooperation mechanism (later "17+1"), played a crucial role in enhancing overall China-Europe relations and, from Beijing’s perspective, largely eased any nascent European anxieties regarding China’s rising influence by demonstrating concrete economic benefits and collaborative initiatives.
Regional Integration and Neighborhood Diplomacy
Half of President Xi’s overseas visits during this five-year span were strategically dedicated to fortifying ties with China’s immediate neighbors, underscoring the ancient adage that good fences make good neighbors, but good relationships make for shared prosperity. This neighborhood diplomacy was multifaceted, encompassing the launch of new regional cooperation mechanisms and the upgrading of existing frameworks. Notable initiatives included the Lancang-Mekong Cooperation mechanism, designed to foster sustainable development and regional integration among the riparian states sharing the Mekong River. The updated version of the China-Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Free Trade Area (CAFTA), building on a decade of economic integration, further deepened trade and investment ties, creating a larger market and supply chain network across East Asia. Additionally, the Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar Economic Corridor (BCIM-EC) was promoted as a vital artery for trade, transport, and economic development, aiming to unlock the economic potential of a vast and populous sub-region. These efforts illustrated China’s commitment to regional stability and economic interdependence, presenting itself as a responsible stakeholder and a primary driver of regional prosperity.
Beyond Asia, cooperation with developing countries in Africa and Latin America witnessed substantial growth. China’s involvement in a multitude of infrastructure and development projects across these continents became a defining feature of its foreign policy. From railways and ports to industrial parks and energy projects, Chinese investment and technical expertise aimed to address critical development gaps, stimulate local economies, and enhance connectivity. These partnerships were consistently framed by Beijing as mutually beneficial, offering developing nations a pathway to modernization without the conditionalities often associated with traditional Western aid.
Architecting a Shared Future: Multilateralism Redefined
Central to President Xi’s diplomatic philosophy, and a concept that gained significant traction during this period, was the proposal to build a community with a shared future for mankind. This ambitious vision served as a guiding principle for China’s diplomatic efforts, shaping its engagement with individual states and regional and international organizations alike. It represents a philosophical framework advocating for global cooperation and mutual responsibility in addressing common challenges, moving beyond narrow national interests.
Championing Economic Globalization
In an era witnessing rising tides of protectionism and isolationism, particularly in the aftermath of the global financial crisis, President Xi emerged as a vocal proponent of economic globalization and multilateralism. From the rostrum of the UN General Assembly to the bustling corridors of the World Economic Forum (WEF) in Davos, from the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) leaders’ meetings to the Group of 20 (G20) forum and the BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) summit, Xi consistently reaffirmed China’s unwavering commitment to an open, inclusive global economy.
Recognizing the widespread anxieties fueled by economic globalization – including sluggish growth, high unemployment, and widening wealth disparities – Xi offered a nuanced perspective. In a landmark keynote speech at the WEF in January 2017, he directly confronted the prevailing narrative that falsely blamed globalization for many of the world’s ills, such as trade protectionism, populism, the refugee crisis, and terrorism. Instead, he argued that the appropriate response was not to retreat but to proactively manage globalization. "In the face of both opportunities and challenges of economic globalization, the right thing to do is to seize every opportunity, jointly meet challenges and chart the right course for economic globalization," Xi declared. He then outlined a clear path forward for the global economy, emphasizing innovation-driven growth, open and win-win cooperation, fairer global governance, and balanced and inclusive development. This stance positioned China as a defender of the existing international economic order, albeit one that Beijing sought to reform and make more equitable.
The Belt and Road Initiative: A Flagship Endeavor
The concept of building a community with a shared future for mankind found its most tangible and ambitious embodiment in the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), which President Xi proposed in 2013. Conceived as a monumental undertaking, the BRI aimed to construct vast trade and infrastructure networks, resurrecting and expanding the ancient Silk Road trade routes. This initiative envisioned connecting Asia with Europe and Africa, encompassing land-based "Silk Road Economic Belt" and maritime "21st Century Maritime Silk Road" components.
The scale of the BRI was unprecedented, involving extensive investments in new railways, roads, ports, industrial zones, and energy pipelines across dozens of countries. Projects like the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), the Jakarta-Bandung High-Speed Railway in Indonesia, and numerous port developments in Africa and Southeast Asia became flagship examples. Crucially, the initiative’s projects were presented as being meticulously aligned with the national development strategies of participating countries, offering a unique opportunity for infrastructure development and economic integration. Moreover, the BRI was explicitly framed as being in harmony with the United Nations 2030 Sustainable Development Goals, emphasizing green development, poverty reduction, and improved livelihoods. Proponents often hailed the Belt and Road Initiative as "perhaps the greatest gift China has ever offered to the world," a transformative force for global connectivity and shared prosperity. By the end of this five-year period, the BRI had already attracted significant global attention and participation, becoming a central pillar of China’s foreign policy and a powerful engine for its global influence.
Global Governance and Sustainable Development
Beyond economic initiatives, China’s commitment to multilateralism was evident in its sustained engagement with the United Nations and its proactive stance on global challenges. President Xi consistently advocated for UN-led multilateralism as the indispensable solution for complex global problems. UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres acknowledged this, stating, "Multilateralism is the solution for the global problems, and China has been a strong pillar of multilateralism." His predecessor, Ban Ki-moon, had similarly lauded China as "an indispensable partner for the UN’s agenda."
A concrete demonstration of China’s commitment to global governance came with its unwavering support for the Paris Agreement on climate change. Following the withdrawal of the United States from the accord, China stepped forward to reaffirm its significant contributions and leadership in climate action, investing heavily in renewable energy and committing to ambitious emissions targets. Furthermore, China substantially increased its contributions to UN peacekeeping missions, both in terms of financial support and troop deployment, becoming a major contributor of personnel among the permanent members of the UN Security Council. These actions underscored China’s evolving role from a participant to a proactive shaper of the international order, dedicated to making the world a more stable, equitable, and sustainable place.
Addressing the Dialogue of Emerging Market and Developing Countries during the BRICS summit held in September 2017 in Xiamen, China, President Xi reiterated the core tenets of this approach: "In an increasingly interdependent and integrated world where countries form a community of shared interests, openness, inclusiveness and win-win cooperation are the only viable option." This statement encapsulated the essence of China’s major-country diplomacy, emphasizing collaboration and shared destiny over isolation and zero-sum competition.
Responses and Perceptions
The emergence of China-style major-country diplomacy and its flagship initiatives elicited a range of responses across the globe. Developing countries, particularly those in Africa, Latin America, and parts of Asia, largely welcomed China’s engagement, viewing it as a significant source of investment, infrastructure development, and an alternative development model. Many appreciated the "no strings attached" approach, contrasting it with the perceived conditionalities of Western aid. The promise of win-win cooperation resonated strongly in nations seeking to accelerate their economic growth and modernize their infrastructure.
However, this proactive diplomacy also drew scrutiny, particularly from some developed nations and international observers. Concerns emerged regarding the financial sustainability of BRI projects, with some critics raising "debt trap" allegations, suggesting that recipient countries might accrue unsustainable debt to China. Questions were also raised about the transparency of certain deals, environmental impacts, and the potential for increased Chinese political influence. While China consistently refuted these criticisms, emphasizing mutual benefits and local ownership, the debate surrounding the long-term implications of its engagement became an important aspect of international discourse during this period. Nevertheless, the overwhelming momentum and scale of China’s diplomatic and economic outreach solidified its position as an undeniable force shaping the 21st-century international landscape.
Implications for a Changing World Order
The five years of President Xi Jinping’s "chief diplomat" role profoundly impacted the trajectory of global governance and international relations. China’s shift from a relatively passive participant to an active shaper of the global order was clear. By consistently advocating for multilateralism, economic globalization, and a "community with a shared future for mankind," China presented itself as a responsible major power, offering a distinct alternative to what it perceived as a Western-dominated, increasingly protectionist international system.
This period witnessed a significant rebalancing of global influence. China’s extensive diplomatic network, coupled with its economic prowess and the ambitious scale of the Belt and Road Initiative, demonstrably expanded its reach and leverage across continents. The emphasis on South-South cooperation, the strengthening of regional blocs, and the championing of a non-hegemonic approach to international relations hinted at a future where multiple centers of power would play a more prominent role. The implications for the established liberal international order were substantial, as China sought to reform and supplement existing institutions rather than merely operate within them.
Ultimately, the diplomatic initiatives undertaken by President Xi Jinping between 2013 and 2018 laid the foundational pillars for China’s continued ascent as a global power. They articulated a coherent foreign policy vision centered on cooperation, shared development, and a re-imagined global order, cementing China’s role as a pivotal actor in shaping the complex dynamics of the 21st century.
Layla Zulfa
Siti Muinah
