A China-Style Major-Country Diplomacy Takes Shape Over Five Years Under President Xi Jinping

Beijing – Over the past five years, Chinese President Xi Jinping’s extensive overseas engagements have fundamentally reshaped China’s role on the global stage, giving rise to a distinct "China-style major-country diplomacy." This period has been marked by an unprecedented level of international activity, seeing President Xi undertake 29 visits to 58 countries and major international and regional organizations across all five continents. These diplomatic endeavors have earned him the unofficial title of China’s "chief diplomat," solidifying a leadership role for China in critical areas such as global peace, security, governance, and development, while simultaneously fostering a deeper worldwide understanding of China’s unique vision and approach to international relations. Central to this approach are the principles of win-win cooperation and the ambitious goal of building a community with a shared future for mankind.

The Genesis of a New Diplomatic Era (2013-2018)

President Xi Jinping’s ascent to the presidency in March 2013 marked a pivotal moment for China’s foreign policy. Departing from the previous decades’ emphasis on "biding time and hiding capabilities," Xi’s leadership signaled a more proactive and assertive engagement with global affairs. His inaugural foreign trip as president to Moscow in March 2013 served as the official debut of this new diplomatic philosophy. Addressing an audience at the Moscow State Institute of International Relations, President Xi articulated a clear departure from Cold War-era thinking. "To keep up with the times, we cannot have ourselves physically living in the 21st century, but with a mindset belonging to the past, stalled in the old days of colonialism, and constrained by zero-sum Cold War mentality," he declared. This seminal speech laid the groundwork for a new type of international relations, one fundamentally anchored in the concept of win-win cooperation.

This initial outreach set the tone for a period of intensive diplomatic activity. From the bustling corridors of the United Nations General Assembly to the economic summits of the G20 and BRICS, and the intellectual gathering at the World Economic Forum in Davos, Xi Jinping consistently championed multilateralism, economic globalization, and a more equitable global order. The five-year span witnessed a strategic and systematic effort to articulate China’s worldview, propose solutions to global challenges, and deepen bilateral and multilateral partnerships across the globe.

Chronology of Key Diplomatic Milestones

• March 2013: Moscow Debut: President Xi’s first foreign trip as head of state, where he unveiled his vision for a "new type of international relations" centered on win-win cooperation. This trip underscored the strategic importance of the China-Russia partnership.
• September-October 2013: Belt and Road Initiative Launch: During visits to Kazakhstan and Indonesia, President Xi introduced the ambitious "Silk Road Economic Belt" and "21st Century Maritime Silk Road," collectively known as the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). This grand vision aimed to build extensive trade and infrastructure networks connecting Asia, Europe, and Africa, revitalizing ancient trade routes and fostering regional connectivity.
• 2014: APEC Beijing Summit: China hosted the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) leaders’ meeting, where President Xi promoted the "Asia-Pacific Dream" and advocated for an open, integrated regional economy, pushing for the Free Trade Area of the Asia-Pacific (FTAAP).
• 2015: UN General Assembly Address: At the UN headquarters, President Xi elaborated on his concept of a "community with a shared future for mankind," proposing concrete steps for global development, peace, and cooperation. He also announced significant contributions to UN peacekeeping and a South-South cooperation fund.
• 2016: G20 Hangzhou Summit: China hosted its first G20 summit, focusing on "Toward an Innovative, Invigorated, Interconnected and Inclusive World Economy." President Xi emphasized structural reforms, innovation-driven growth, and coordinated macroeconomic policies to address global economic sluggishness.
• January 2017: World Economic Forum in Davos: Amid rising protectionism and anti-globalization sentiments, President Xi delivered a powerful defense of economic globalization, positioning China as a champion of free trade and multilateralism. He outlined a path forward based on innovation, open cooperation, and fairer governance.
• May 2017: Belt and Road Forum for International Cooperation: Beijing hosted a landmark summit gathering leaders from dozens of countries to discuss the BRI, showcasing its growing international appeal and highlighting specific infrastructure projects and cooperation agreements.
• September 2017: BRICS Xiamen Summit: China hosted the BRICS summit, pushing for deeper cooperation among emerging economies and expanding the "BRICS Plus" model to include other developing countries, further solidifying the bloc’s influence in global governance.

Deepening Bilateral Ties and Strategic Partnerships

The intensity of President Xi’s travel schedule was matched by the strategic depth of the relationships he cultivated.

• China-Russia: An Anchor of Stability: President Xi’s six visits to Russia and more than 20 meetings with Russian President Vladimir Putin across various platforms have elevated China-Russia relations to their historical zenith. This robust partnership, characterized by extensive cooperation in energy, trade, defense, and coordination on international issues, serves as a crucial anchor for global peace and security. Vyacheslav Volodin, Chairman of the Russian State Duma, lauded this model, stating, "I believe that the model of bilateral relations that we have created should become one of the examples of civilized interaction between countries in the 21st century." Bilateral trade between China and Russia saw significant growth during this period, exceeding $80 billion by 2017, demonstrating the economic underpinning of their strategic alignment.
• China-U.S.: Navigating Complexity: Despite shifts in White House leadership and inherent uncertainties, the principles of non-conflict, non-confrontation, mutual respect, and win-win cooperation championed by Xi Jinping helped stabilize China-U.S. relations. Exchanges with U.S. President Donald Trump led to the establishment of new high-level dialogue mechanisms, including the Comprehensive Economic Dialogue, Diplomatic and Security Dialogue, Law Enforcement and Cybersecurity Dialogue, and Social and Cultural Issues Dialogue. These platforms aimed to manage differences and promote global peace and security through structured engagement, even as underlying tensions persisted.
• China-Europe: A Partnership for Peace and Growth: Each of President Xi’s tours to Europe expanded China-Europe relations, fostering a partnership with the European Union based on peace, growth, reform, and mutually beneficial bilateral cooperation. China sought closer ties with key European economies like Germany, France, and the UK, while also significantly boosting engagement with Central and Eastern European (CEE) countries through initiatives like the "16+1 cooperation" platform. This multi-faceted approach aimed to address European concerns about China’s rise and build bridges of understanding and economic collaboration. By 2017, China was the EU’s second-largest trading partner, with bilateral trade exceeding €500 billion annually.
• Regional Integration and Neighborly Diplomacy: Half of Xi’s overseas visits during this period were dedicated to strengthening ties with China’s neighbors. Initiatives like the Lancang-Mekong Cooperation mechanism, aimed at sustainable development and shared prosperity among riparian states, and the updated China-Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Free Trade Area, which boosted trade and investment, exemplified this focus. The advancement of projects like the Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar (BCIM) Economic Corridor also highlighted efforts to foster regional economic integration and connectivity, laying the groundwork for greater stability and shared growth in Asia.
• South-South Cooperation: Africa and Latin America: China’s commitment to developing countries was evident in its expanded cooperation with nations in Africa and Latin America. This period saw China’s significant involvement in numerous infrastructure and development projects, ranging from railways and ports to industrial parks and energy facilities. The Forum on China-Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) continued to be a crucial platform, with China pledging substantial development aid and investment, contributing to critical infrastructure such as the Addis Ababa-Djibouti Railway and the Mombasa-Nairobi Standard Gauge Railway. Similarly, in Latin America, China became a major trading partner and investor, supporting projects in energy, mining, and infrastructure, reflecting a deepening of South-South cooperation.

Strengthening Multilateralism and Global Governance

A central pillar of President Xi’s diplomacy has been the unwavering commitment to multilateralism, particularly evident in his proposal to build a "community with a shared future for mankind." This concept, often presented as China’s answer to global challenges, has illuminated China’s diplomatic efforts concerning individual states and regional and international organizations.

• Championing the UN System: From his impactful address at the UN General Assembly to consistent engagement with UN specialized agencies, President Xi has reaffirmed China’s commitment to UN-led multilateralism and global peace. China has been a steadfast supporter of the UN’s agenda, significantly contributing to peacekeeping missions, with over 2,500 peacekeepers deployed globally by 2017, making it the largest contributor of troops among the permanent members of the UN Security Council. Furthermore, China’s financial contributions to the UN budget have steadily increased, reflecting its growing global responsibility. UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres explicitly stated, "Multilateralism is the solution for the global problems, and China has been a strong pillar of multilateralism." His predecessor, Ban Ki-moon, had earlier called China "an indispensable partner for the UN’s agenda."
• Defending Globalization at Davos: In January 2017, President Xi Jinping delivered a landmark speech at the World Economic Forum (WEF) in Davos, positioning China as a staunch defender of economic globalization. At a time when globalization was being "falsely blamed" for a sluggish global economy, high unemployment, rising trade protectionism, populism, and the widening gap between rich and poor, Xi countered with a call for enlightened leadership. He asserted, "In the face of both opportunities and challenges of economic globalization, the right thing to do is to seize every opportunity, jointly meet challenges and chart the right course for economic globalization." He outlined a vision for an innovation-driven, open, and win-win global economy with fairer governance and balanced, inclusive development. This speech was widely seen as China stepping into a leadership vacuum left by other major powers, particularly regarding global economic governance.
• Engaging G20 and BRICS: President Xi utilized platforms like the Group of 20 (G20) forum and the BRICS summit to advocate for a more inclusive and representative global economic governance architecture. He consistently pushed for greater coordination in macroeconomic policies and for developed nations to fulfill their commitments to developing countries. The BRICS summit, embracing Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa, became a key forum for coordinating positions among major emerging economies, enhancing their collective voice in global affairs and fostering South-South cooperation.

The Belt and Road Initiative: A Global Blueprint for Shared Future

Perhaps the most tangible manifestation of "a community with a shared future for mankind" is the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), proposed by President Xi in 2013. Far beyond a mere infrastructure project, the BRI evolved into a comprehensive framework for global connectivity, aiming to build extensive trade and infrastructure networks in countries along and beyond the ancient Silk Road trade routes.

By the end of this five-year period, the BRI had garnered significant international participation, with numerous countries signing memoranda of understanding with China. The initiative encompasses a vast array of projects, including new railways (like the China-Europe freight rail network), ports (such as the Port of Piraeus in Greece), industrial zones, and energy pipelines across Asia, Africa, and parts of Europe. These projects are not only designed to boost economic growth and trade but are also explicitly aligned with the development strategies of many participating countries and the United Nations 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). This alignment with global development objectives underscores China’s narrative of the BRI as a public good, promoting sustainable and inclusive growth. While specific investment figures are continuously updated, early estimates indicated hundreds of billions of dollars in planned or executed infrastructure investments, potentially impacting billions of people. The initiative has been hailed by many as a powerful engine for global growth and perhaps the greatest gift China has ever offered to the world, demonstrating a concrete path towards greater interdependence and shared prosperity.

Environmental Stewardship and Global Responsibility

Beyond economic and security initiatives, China’s diplomatic outreach also highlighted its commitment to global environmental stewardship. Following the United States’ withdrawal from the Paris climate change accord, China’s continued and vocal support for the agreement became a significant act of multilateral leadership. President Xi repeatedly affirmed China’s dedication to combating climate change, investing heavily in renewable energy, and adhering to its commitments under the Paris Agreement. This stance positioned China as a responsible global actor, willing to shoulder its share of the burden in addressing existential threats like climate change, even when other major powers retreated.

In his address at the Dialogue of Emerging Market and Developing Countries during the BRICS summit in Xiamen in September 2017, President Xi succinctly summarized China’s diplomatic philosophy: "In an increasingly interdependent and integrated world where countries form a community of shared interests, openness, inclusiveness and win-win cooperation are the only viable option."

Implications and Future Trajectory

The five years of President Xi Jinping’s "major-country diplomacy" have profoundly altered the landscape of international relations. China has transitioned from a largely reactive foreign policy to a proactive and agenda-setting global player. The implications are far-reaching:

• Shifting Global Governance: China’s increased engagement in multilateral institutions and its proposals for global solutions have begun to reshape the contours of global governance, offering alternatives or complements to existing Western-dominated frameworks.
• Economic Interdependence: The Belt and Road Initiative, in particular, has fostered unprecedented levels of economic interdependence, creating new trade routes and investment opportunities that integrate economies across continents, potentially altering global supply chains and economic power balances.
• Soft Power and Influence: Through its advocacy for win-win cooperation, shared development, and a "community with a shared future," China has sought to enhance its soft power and present an appealing model of international relations, particularly to developing countries.
• Challenges and Opportunities: While lauded by many, China’s rising diplomatic assertiveness also presents challenges for the existing international order, raising questions about its long-term intentions and the compatibility of its vision with traditional liberal internationalism. However, it also offers opportunities for enhanced cooperation on shared global problems, from climate change to pandemics, where China’s engagement is increasingly indispensable.

The foundation laid by President Xi’s diplomatic endeavors between 2013 and 2018 established a new paradigm for China’s interaction with the world, setting a trajectory for continued proactive engagement, multilateral leadership, and the persistent promotion of a distinct "China solution" to global challenges.